Popular readings of modern history in Kerala tend to focus on the many male leaders who led struggles for social justice. Naveen brings to light less-known incidents from these struggles to shine a light on the leadership of women in the struggles for caste and gender justice.
Naveen Prasad Alex
In Kerala’s present-day struggles for social justice, leaders like C.K. Janu and Seleena Prakkanam stand as powerful symbols of resistance, challenging systemic oppression and fighting for the rights of Dalit and Adivasi communities. Yet, their voices often remain sidelined. This ‘invisibilisation’ is not a recent phenomenon. Women have been at the forefront of many struggles for social justice during the Kerala Renaissance, but their contributions remain largely overshadowed in popular history. This essay shines a light on some such forgotten legacies, highlighting the leadership of women in the Kerala Renaissance while connecting their struggles to the ongoing fight for justice. By doing so, we challenge the narrow lens of history and honour the women who shaped Kerala’s social justice movements—past and present.
Trailblazing Women of PRDS’ Social and Spiritual Liberation Movement
The Prathyaksha Raksha Daiva Sabha (PRDS), founded by Poikayil Appachan in 1910, was a transformative movement in Kerala that fought caste discrimination and promoted spiritual and social liberation. PRDS’ approach to gender equality was revolutionary for its time, giving women significant roles in all aspects of life, including as priests and leaders who led congregations and guided the faithful. This practice, groundbreaking for the early 20th century, remains progressive even by today’s standards, with many religious institutions still grappling with gender equality. PRDS gatherings often faced brutal opposition from conservative Savarna elites and Syrian Christian feudal lords, who viewed the movement as a direct threat to their dominance. One particularly notable incident took place in Vakatham in 1909, when a group of armed Syrian Christians, incited by local feudal lords, launched a violent attack on Appachan who was addressing a gathering (Swami & Anil 2021, N. K. Jose 2018). Their intent was not merely to disrupt the meeting, but to assassinate Appachen and crush the movement at its roots (Lenin 2022). Women leaders of the PRDS displayed extraordinary courage and determination in defending their community during these attacks. Under the leadership of Nadveli Parambil Kochachi and Tekkattil Amma, they fought back fiercely. Boiling water from cooking pots was thrown at the attackers, and sickles were wielded with defiant resolve to protect the gathering (Lenin 2022, Rekharaj 2017, Rekharaj 2024). Amidst the chaos, a follower of Appachan managed to escort him away from the scene to ensure his safety (Lenin 2022, Rekharaj 2017, Rekharaj 2024).
When Appachan was injured in a similar incident at Vettiyattu a year later, women leaders of the PRDS once again rose to defend their community with unyielding courage. Among them was a prominent woman named Ely, who fought bravely but was ultimately martyred in the confrontation, earning her the reverence of PRDS followers who came to honour her as ‘Vettiyattu Amma’, a symbol of resistance and resilience within the movement (Lenin 2022). In the same year, in Kumarakam, Chinaamma, a prominent preacher with the Sabha, saved Appachan’s life after another incident of Savarna violence (Swami & Anil 2021). Other prominent women leaders in the movement like Kuzhiyadi Amma, Kallakutti Maria, Tekkattil Amma, and Anjilimoottil Amma were all instrumental in organising and leading public gatherings, mobilising communities, and fostering collective action (Rekharaj 2017, Rekharaj 2024, Lenin 2022). PRDS women were also actively involved in seeking legislative representation. A petition submitted by PRDS women to the Travancore government highlighted economic and social hardships faced by marginalised women, advocating for their inclusion in the Sree Moolam Praja Sabha (Swami & Anil, 2021). Though this effort ultimately did not succeed, it marked a significant moment in their struggle for political representation.
After Appachan died in 1939, his wife V. Janamma (1910-1985), or Ammachi as she was popularly called, led PRDS through challenging times, transforming it into a centralised organisation with branches across Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. Under her leadership, PRDS expanded its influence, established youth and women’s wings, and launched Adiyardeepam, its own publication (Sarinbaboo & Tharun 2023). Ammachi also oversaw the construction of a five-story mausoleum for Appachan, a symbol of solace for Dalits worldwide (Sarinbaboo & T. Tharun 2023). During the Mandal Commission agitations, PRDS, under Ammachi’s guidance, supported the commission’s findings and participated in advocacy efforts (Sarinbaboo & Tharun 2023). Through the contributions of its women leaders, PRDS exemplified the strength of women’s leadership in the Kerala Renaissance, leaving an indelible mark on Kerala’s cultural heritage.
Pillars of Resistance: Dalit Women During and After Ayyankali’s Era
Much like with the PRDS, women were steadfast pillars of Ayyankali’s revolutionary movement, challenging caste oppression and social inequities with courage and resilience. The contributions of courageous women like P.C. Kurumba in several key anti-caste struggles, most notably the Kuttamkulam and Nadavarambu struggles, are noteworthy. The Kuttamkulam Struggle, also known as the Vazhinnadakkal Samaram, began in 1946 as a protest against the evil of untouchability that denied Dalit communities’ access to the premises and roads surrounding the Koodalmanikyam Temple in Irinjalakuda (Krishnankutty 2019, Palekaran 2023). Other key women leaders of the strike included K.V. Kali, K.K. Chakki, and Chammikutty, who, along with Kurumba and other Dalit women leaders, organised a historic march in Kuttamkulam in 1946, demanding the right to free movement. During the protest, the marchers symbolically threw away the ‘thindapalaka’, the board that marked the area as off-limits to Dalits (Krishnankutty 2019, Palekaran 2023). It was a striking moment when all the women who participated in the protest were dressed in sarees, asserting their dignity and defiance. However, the protestors faced brutal opposition from the Savarans and police and were subjected to violent attacks, with women being spit on (Krishnankutty 2019, Palekaran 2023). Kurumba was arrested during the strike and subjected to severe torture, including being thrown naked into a male cell, a brutal act that was meant to humiliate and break her spirit (Krishnankutty 2019, Palekaran 2023). Despite the Cochin king’s promise to address the issue after the strikes gained momentum, it took nearly a year for any concrete action to be taken (Palekaran 2023). Kurumba also spearheaded the Nadavarambu Strike, also known as the Pariyarath Strike in the 1960s, against attempts by landlords in the Irinjalakuda region to expel Pulaya farmers from their farmland (Krishnankutty 2019, Palekaran 2023). The sheer strength of the crowd forced the police to withdraw from their aggressive actions, though the main leaders of the protest, including Kurumba, were arrested (Krishnankutty 2019, Palekaran 2023, Premachandran 2022). The strike marked a significant moment of collective resistance against the oppression faced by Dalit farmers and highlighted the crucial role played by women leaders in these movements.
The Paliyam struggle (1947-1948) in Chendamangalam, Kerala, was a powerful mass protest against the oppressive caste-based policies enforced by the prominent landlords of Kochi and the Paliath Achans, who held the position of prime ministers to the Maharaja. In June 1947, a united public decided to challenge the roadblocks, leading to the formation of the Paliyam Road Struggle Committee with representatives from key organisations such as the Prajamandalam, SNDP, the Communist Party, and the Pulaya Mahasabha (Surendran 2023, Krishnankutty 2019). Among the committee’s key members was K C Kali, a prominent leader from the Pulaya Mahasabha and Communist Party. Kali played a vital role in mobilising the Dalit communities, organising public meetings, and coordinating protest marches that boldly demanded the rights and dignity of the oppressed (Surendran 2023, Krishnankutty 2019). On November 26, 1947, the committee issued an ultimatum: if the Paliyam Road was not opened by December 3, satyagrahis would march through the restricted area (Surendran 2023, Krishnankutty 2019). Kali’s dynamic leadership included moving the crowd with powerful slogans like ‘death to untouchability, death to the caste system, Inquilab Zindabad,’ which became a rallying cry for the movement, embodying the spirit of resistance and the demand for equality (Surendran 2023, Krishnankutty 2019). Kali’s involvement in the movement led to her arrest and severe torture but following 96 days of relentless protest, the authorities were eventually forced to recognize the rightful claims of the oppressed communities. In 1948, the government granted the right of passage and temple entry to Dalit communities, marking a significant victory in the fight for equality and justice (Surendran 2023, Krishnankutty 2019).
Though limited information exists, several women worked alongside Mahatma Ayyankali, playing key roles in movements like the Kallumala Samaram (Rekharaj 2017, Rekharaj 2024). Notable leaders such as Ennipachi, Kaalu, Ammu, Kuluri, and Anniyathal Athani were instrumental within the Sadhujana Paripalana Sangham, mobilising Dalit communities, organising meetings, and raising awareness about their rights (Rekharaj 2017, Rekharaj 2024). Inspired by Ayyankali’s activism, Pulaya women in Aluva, led by Kochukali, discarded their stone necklaces, prompting Ayyankali to gift her a dress and invite her to join the Sangham (Krishnankutty 2019). Kochukali later became a prominent figure in organising Dalit agricultural workers against oppressive Savarna landlords (Krishnankutty 2019).
The historical narrative of Kerala’s social movements is incomplete without acknowledging the formidable contributions of women, particularly Dalit women, who stood at the forefront of the transformative struggles of the Kerala Renaissance movement. These women, often relegated to the background by patriarchal structures and historical biases, played central roles in organising and leading resistance against caste oppression. By shining light on their stories, we enrich our understanding of these movements, recognizing that the fight for equality and justice was not only led by prominent male figures but also shaped by the courage and resilience of marginalised women. Their legacy continues to inspire, reminding us of the need to ensure that the struggles for social justice are inclusive, acknowledging all voices that have long been silenced in the pages of history.
References
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Krishnankutty, Orna. (2019). History of Pulayas: A Study. SPCS.
Lenin, K. M. (2022). Poykayil Appachan: Liberator of the Oppressed. SPCS.
Palekaran, Lily. (2023). P. C. Kurumba. Sayahna Foundation Publications.
Premachandran, C., K. (2022). Nadavarmbu turned red and the Landlords surrendered. Deshabhimani.
Rekharaj. (2017). Dalit Women Interventions. DC Books.
Rekharaj. (2024). The Continuity of Ayyankali and Dalit Women Movements. Mathrubhumi Weekly.
Sarinbaboo & T. Tharun. (2023). Divyamathavu: Vyakthy, Sabha, Charitram, Acharyajyothis Magazine.
Surendran, V. A. (2023). Paliyam Strike. Deshabhimani.
Swami, V. V., & Anil, E. V. (2021). Prathyaksha Raksha Daiva Sabha: Orma, Pattu, Charithra Rekhakal. Adiyardeepam Publication, Kottayam.
About the Author: Naveen Prasad Alex, originally from Kozhikode, Kerala, is an IMPRS Fellow at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology in Plön, Germany. He holds a B.Sc. in Biological Sciences from Krea University, India, and M.Sc. in Biology from the University of Turku, Finland. Naveen has published several research papers in various journals, focusing on ecology and evolutionary biology. Beyond his work in the sciences, he is deeply passionate about history and has authored articles in both Malayalam and English for various magazines, exploring historical themes including Ambedkar’s legacy, anti-caste movements, and the Kerala Renaissance.
